Central Visayas water districts (WDs) are recording the largest water deficit in the Visayas region despite reaching record production levels, according to a 2025 discussion paper from the Philippine Institute for Development Studies (PIDS).
Record Production but Persistent Shortfall
The findings, part of a study titled “Securing Tomorrow’s Water: Insights on Groundwater, Surface Water and the Role of Water Districts in the Philippines,” show that WDs in Central Visayas produced 12 million cubic meters of water in 2021. This figure represents the highest effective supply recorded in the entire Visayas. PIDS released the study, dated December 2025, on its website on Feb. 20, 2026.
“Region 7 had the highest total demand above 10 million cubic meters while Region 8 had the lowest total demand of about four million cubic meters. Effective water supply was also highest in 2021 in Region 7 at 12 million cubic meters,” the study reads.
Regional Imbalance
By law, Local Water Districts (LWDs) are government-owned and -controlled corporations authorized to operate, manage and maintain water systems in cities, municipalities and provinces. Presidential Decree (PD) 198, also known as the Provincial Water Utility Act of 1973, created these districts to build and maintain essential water infrastructure.
However, WDs in the region face an average water deficit of four million cubic meters, the highest among the areas studied. Central Visayas is the only region in the cluster where total demand for water districts exceeded 10 million cubic meters. This shortfall contributes to an average negative water balance of 2.7 million cubic meters across all WDs in the Visayas.
Between 2019 and 2024, the average total demand for WDs in the Visayas was 8.9 million cubic meters against an average effective supply of 6.3 million cubic meters. “From 2019 to 2024, the average total demand among all WDs was 8.9 million cubic meters while the average effective supply was 6.3 million cubic meters, this result to a average negative water balance of 2.7 million cubic meters,” the study said.
Coverage Gaps
The study notes that average water coverage rates for WDs in the Visayas stand at 68 percent, which falls below the 85 percent benchmark considered indicative of adequate supply performance. While Central Visayas WDs report a 100 percent coverage rate, other districts in the Visayas average 68 percent, with Eastern Visayas recording the lowest at approximately 60 percent.
In Central Visayas, the broader water service landscape includes 2,769 total providers, comprising 1,790 Level 1, 252 Level 2 and 727 Level 3 systems. These systems work alongside water districts to address the varied needs of the local population.
Resource Availability
PIDS reported an annual groundwater supply of approximately 20,200 million cubic meters, based on estimates from the National Water Resources Board (NWRB). When combined with the dependable surface water supply of 206,230 million cubic meters at an 80 percent probability, the country’s total mean water availability reaches about 226,430 million cubic meters annually.
Agriculture receives an estimated 83 to 85 percent of these resources, while the industrial, commercial and domestic sectors share the remaining supply. Despite the volume of available water, the national supply remains under significant pressure from rapid urban population growth and widespread pollution.
“Rapid urban population growth, widespread water pollution, and inefficient water use pose major challenges. These pressures are compounded by deforestation in critical watersheds and saltwater intrusion resulting from excessive groundwater extraction, particularly in highly urbanized areas such as Metro Manila, Cebu and Davao City,” the study reads.
Environmental Pressure
The study also cited a Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) study from 1998 that identified urban centers including Metro Cebu, Metro Manila and Davao City as “water-stressed.” JICA said water availability in the Philippines is unevenly distributed across its 12 regions due to significant variations in local climate and geography.
The JICA study projected that water deficits are most likely in Cagayan Valley, Central Luzon, Southern Tagalog and Central Visayas. Climate extremes like El Niño and La Niña, along with long-term climate change, intensify these vulnerabilities and create a volatile cycle of acute water shortages and catastrophic flooding.
According to PIDS, 60 percent of WDs in the Visayas rely on wells for distribution. Excessive groundwater extraction has resulted in saltwater intrusion in coastal areas, specifically in Metro Cebu and Lapu-Lapu City. “Most of the groundwater extraction activities are highly concentrated along coastal areas in Metro Cebu including the island of Lapu-lapu,” the study reads.
Groundwater use by the water supply industry increased by 11.2 percent from 2022 to 2023, while total groundwater use grew by an average of 3.8 percent from 2014 to 2023.
